How Christianity Rose to Dominate Europe
We are living in both a post-colonial and neocolonial world which is the aftermath of a centuries-long campaign by European powers to achieve global dominance. While there were many factors that led to this overriding fact of early modern and modern world history, there is one that looms perhaps larger than the rest: the Christianization of Europe.
Christianity provided the religious motivation and justification while endowing a sense of cultural superiority. It also helped to sow political unity among and even between European powers. But how did a West Asian-based cult religion come to endow an adjacent continent with its primary source of identity? It’s a complex thread to follow, but let’s start from the beginning.
Humble Beginnings Amongst the Roman-Ruled Jews
Christianity would grow to dominate Europe by the 5th century AD. But its humble beginnings can be traced to the adjacent continent of Asia, in a backwater of the Roman Empire known as Judea. It began as a small Jewish movement in and around Jerusalem, which purported that the Son of God (i.e. Jesus Christ, the "anointed one") had lived and preached among them during the early 1st century. Followers claimed that his new "gospel" (a.k.a. "the way") corrected the corruptions which had infiltrated Judaism throughout the previous centuries. The way to salvation was now available to them if they would believe and follow the teachings of Jesus.
Christianity first materialized as an offshoot of Judaism, known as "reformed Judaism". It centered around the Hebrew prophesies of a Jewish messiah. Just as Judaism was viewed primarily as a religion for the Israelites, Christianity was initially viewed as a religion for "God's chosen people", as the Israelites viewed themselves. This original understanding is reflected by various passages in the New Testament which ascribe to Jesus instruction that prohibits Jewish followers from introducing the gospel among the "gentiles" (i.e. non-Jews).
The prevailing viewpoint among the earliest Christians was that the gospel was God's gift to the Jews to help perfect them as a people. Not only this, it was believed to be an instrument by which they could escape their captors, the Romans. It was messianic prophecy to be fulfilled, ultimately ushering the Kingdom of Heaven to the earth, which was to be located in Jerusalem with the resurrected Jesus at its throne.
According to New Testament writings, the apostle Peter understood that the gospel was to be confined to the Jews. But then Paul of Tarsus entered the scene and successfully challenged this notion, marking an important transitional point for Christianity.
Expansion Beyond Jerusalem to the "Gentiles"
The earliest-dated writings of the New Testament are the Pauline Epistles, as agreed upon by most secular and Christian scholars. Paul, after his renowned conversion story on the Road to Damascus, wrote several letters during his missionary travels throughout the Greco-Roman world from about 36 – 60 AD. This was made possible by the Roman Empire’s advanced road system.
According to scripture, Paul and Peter contended with one another concerning whether it was appropriate to proselyte among the Gentiles. Peter, the head of the Christian movement, and his followers believed that for a Gentile to become Christian, they must first convert to Judaism. This faction insisted that converted Gentiles and Jews should continue to uphold the Torah and all the laws and rituals that Judaism entailed, including temple rituals and practices.
Paul had other ideas. He argued that Jesus had fulfilled this law and that it was no longer necessary to observe the laws and rituals of Judaism. Paul and Peter eventually arrived at a compromise where Jewish converts would continue to practice the Law of Moses while Gentile converts would not be required.
During the Council of Jerusalem in 50 AD, it was determined that Gentiles would be accepted by all Jews into the Christianity movement and that certain Jewish practices were not necessary for their inclusion, especially circumcision.
Jewish Christianity largely died out because of this. The new idea of a religion independent of Judaism eclipsed the original Jewish-centric creed. The fate of Jewish-Christianity was sealed with the slaughters and deportations of Jews in Jerusalem between 70-130 AD in response to the Jewish revolts against the Roman Empire. Jewish Christians were largely located in and around Jerusalem, meaning they were disproportionately killed or deported. While Judaism would follow the deportees to their new homes throughout Europe, Christianity would not.
As Jewish Christianity dwindled into extinction by the 2nd century, it was the Gentiles that took the mantle of Christianity, continuing the struggle against Roman persecution in order to survive as a religion. The Romans viewed Christians as a sect of the Jewish religion, which they disdained as it conflicted with the worship of the Greco-Roman Gods. Christians and Jews were also known for their zealous revolts. Furthermore, many in the Roman Empire believed that Christianity offended the Greco-Roman Gods, which is why Paul and Peter were blamed for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, leading to their martyrdom.
On the other hand, Christianity offered many attractive doctrines for Romans, especially those trapped among the lower rungs of Roman society, including peasants and slaves. This segment clung to the idea that despite their inevitable sufferings in this life, the poor and the meek would gain equality—and even superiority—in the next life. They may have been hopelessly oppressed within the Roman Empire. But Christianity gave them a gleaming hope that surpassed all their temporal struggles.
Even many in the middle and upper classes found themselves attracted to Christianity due to many of its altruistic teachings. There was also the convenient doctrine in Christian scripture that encouraged slaves to remain faithful to their masters. Christianity also benefited from other conceptually similar mystery religions that preceded it. The people were already predisposed to many of its teachings, such as monotheism and the idea that there was a spiritual realm adjacent to the physical one they experienced.
Persecutions at the hands of their Roman overlords only seemed to validate this message. The crucifixion of Christ resonated with them in a visceral way. Consistent with Christian writings, it was an inevitable fact of life that those with power on earth would oppress the meek and the poor. But the humble servants of Christ would be compensated for their sufferings in the next life.
Despite these auspicious circumstances, Christians would remain a fringe religion in the Roman Empire until becoming legalized in the 4th century. It flourished more strongly in the east amongst the Greeks than it did in the west amongst the Italians. And yet, it was within Italian heartland of the Roman Empire where Christianity would be catapulted toward dominant status.
Christianity's Big Break: From Fringe to Official Religion of Rome
Christianity's ascension to dominance was sparked by a single event: the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I. Constantine was embattled in a bitter civil war to retain the emperor’s throne. Before the decisive battle against his brother-in-law and chief rival in 312 AD, he was said to have claimed to experience a vision where Christ appeared to him, instructing him to place the sign of Christ on the banners carried by his troops. This is exactly what he did. And it seemed his faith was rewarded when his army proceeded to demolish that of his rival, securing his position as emperor. Not surprisingly, he credited the Christian God for the victory and went on to give favor to Christianity over all other religions in the massive Empire.
Almost overnight, Christianity was propelled to the status of global, theological powerhouse. Roman citizens and subjects converted in droves as Christians were afforded special tax breaks and other amenities not available to any other religious affiliations. But other religions were still permitted. It was not until later in the 4th century, in the year 380, when Christianity would be named the official state religion of Rome, and all other forms of worship outlawed. This would ensure the conversion of nearly everyone under Roman control, covering much of Europe, West Asia and North Africa. The penalty for not converting was deportation or execution.
Refinement While Under Roman Leadership
In addition to promoting Christianity within the world's largest empire at the time, Constantine also forced various Christian leaders to unify the diverse doctrines that had evolved since the inception of Christianity. Although this process seriously curbed any semblance of religious freedom within the movement, it succeeded in centralizing the power structure of the church, strengthening its influence.
The First Council of Nicaea, in modern Turkey, was mandated by Constantine in 325, with the purpose of resolving these common doctrinal controversies. The primary point of contention of the day concerned the nature of Jesus Christ. Arianism argued that Jesus was created by the father and was therefore a separate being. Orthodoxy contended that the Father and the Son were of the same substance. Orthodoxy was the majority view going into the council and emerged as the only accepted doctrine upon its conclusion.
Arian priests that continued to preach the "separate substance" theology faced execution or exile from the Roman Empire. This marked the beginning of the end of Arianism as a mainstream doctrine. Although this branch of Christianity would survive, even to this day, and even competing with the Roman Catholic Church in the early Dark Ages, it would always remain a fringe sect within Christianity.
While the most pressing doctrinal controversy was resolved in Nicaea, there were still a large number of Christian texts floating around, many of which contradicted one another. In order to bring an end to the confusion, church leaders commenced the Council of Rome in 382 to determine which books should be canonized and included in the authorized scriptural collection, later known as the Bible. A variety of factors were considered in selecting texts, including doctrinal congruency and authenticity. Other more arbitrary factors also came into play. For instance, it was determined that four gospel texts had to be included, no more or no less, to represent the "four corners" of the earth.
Even though doctrinal inconsistencies had been resolved, there was not a set hierarchy within Christendom throughout the remainder of the 4th century and halfway through the 5th. In 451, the Council of Chalcedon was convened to establish a defined hierarchy, or a centrally operated Christian church. Christianity had traditionally been stronger in the east, in Bishoprics such as Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Constantinople. But the Church headquarters was awarded to the Bishopric of Rome, with the Bishopric of Constantinople recognized as second in power.
It was generally understood that Peter, the head of Christendom following the death of Christ, was the original Bishop of Rome. Therefore, it stood to reason that the Roman Bishops represented the true Apostolic Succession as the authenticated head of the entire Christian movement. It also helped that Rome was the epicenter of the Roman Empire. Basing the Christian Church in Rome enabled close coordination between political and ecclesiastic leadership. With this decision, the loosely organized and decentralized "Christian Church" became the highly centralized Roman Catholic Church.
Increased Authority and Control During Medieval Times
Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, secular authority broke down throughout the former Roman Empire in Western and Central Europe. As invading Germanic tribes took control of former Roman lands, the rule of law became virtually non-existent. The Roman Catholic Church organizational apparatus remained intact though, causing the Christianized masses to look to the Church first and foremost for guidance during this chaotic time. Thus, the power and influence of the Roman Catholic Church continued to grow.
However, other hallmarks of Roman life dwindled, including education. This only served the Catholic Church even more, as it was relied upon for not only spiritual sustenance, but knowledge of the world as clergy were typically among the rare few that became literate and educated. Naturally, they primarily imparted only faith-promoting religious knowledge, not wanting to distract its congregations from the path to salvation.
Catholic churches also served as libraries for secular literature, including non-religious writings, such as those from classical Greek philosophers. This material was not shared with congregations and became largely forgotten during the Dark Ages. Many or most of these writings became lost during Medieval times. Critics accuse the Catholic Church of intentionally purging these non-religious writings, but there is little to no direct evidence of this. Many books were lost due to the natural perishability of books along with barbaric raids, such as those by the Huns. These factors played a role in the widespread decline in worldly knowledge, thus, ushering in the Dark Ages.
In a very real sense, the Catholic Church became the "information highway" of the Middle Ages. It controlled the messages dispensed to the masses, and thereby strongly influenced beliefs, attitudes and actions. Philosophies deemed to be paganistic were suppressed, as were entire fields of knowledge, including early versions of science and technology.
The Roman Catholic Church not only controlled the flow of information, but they also had a strong say in secular politics. Essentially, they became "kingmakers". Kings that aligned with the Church gained an advantage with the large, Christian populations left behind by the collapse of the Roman Empire. Most Germanic kings learned this quickly, adopting Christianity soon after conquering former Roman provinces. The Ostrogoths converted after conquering Italy. The Franks converted after conquering Gaul, roughly approximate to modern France. The Visigoths converted after conquering Hispania—modern Spain and Portugal. Doing so enabled each to consolidate rule in their new kingdoms, gaining support amongst their new subjects.
In addition to lending their approval of a new ruler, the Church also aided kings and rulers in several other ways. For example, monasteries provided public relations support on behalf of the king. In exchange, the Church was given lands and clergy were appointed to influential positions in the King's court, giving the Church a voice in policy.
This led to the Church playing a big role in creating laws throughout Europe during the Dark Ages, including forced worship and conversions, increased tithes, and repression of anti-Church influences. Kings also benefited by being able to secure advantageous trade partnerships with fellow Christian kingdoms.
During the Middle Ages, virtually all of Europe became Christianized, either through the Roman Catholic Church or the Eastern Orthodoxy Church based in Constantinople, where the Eastern Roman Empire was still intact. But it was the Roman Church that became more powerful and influential. As a result, the pope became perhaps the most powerful person in all of Europe. Even when a kingdom or empire dared defy the Church, as the German "Holy Roman Empire" did in the 11th century, the pope proved capable of raising an army to defeat such insubordinate rulers.
East-West Schism
Also in the 11th century (1054), the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy Church in Constantinople officially split, excommunicating one another. Although the seeds of division were planted centuries before the official split in 1054, the hard break was primarily a result of claims of primacy and jurisdiction, with both Churches battling for supremacy. The Roman Church sought to retain control over all of Christianity. The Eastern Church attempted to rise to the status of co-equals, which was largely true in practice, as the Eastern Orthodoxy did serve as the supreme authority in the Greek world.
There were also doctrinal differences, such as that surrounding the icon controversy. The creation of religious imagery such as statues and paintings was an important part of worship among the Greek Christians. However, this was considered heresy by the Roman Church in the Latin world. This hotly debated issue served as another point of divergence between the two churches.
After the split, the Roman and Eastern churches would both grow powerful within their respective spheres. However, the Roman Catholic Church would gain the advantage after the Eastern Orthodoxy church came under the rule of the Islamic Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. This would result in the widespread subdivision of Eastern Orthodoxy into Greek Orthodoxy, Serbia Orthodoxy, Russian Orthodoxy, etc., along with a corresponding rise in power of the Roman Church.
Crusades: The Zenith of Church Power
After the East-West schism, the Byzantine Empire—the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire by the Greeks after the fall of the Western Roman Empire based in Italy—had lost most of Anatolia (modern Turkey) to encroaching Muslim armies. Byzantine solicited the Roman Catholic Church to drum up support to fend off the advancing Muslims. This, along with the fact that Christian pilgrims visiting Muslim-controlled Jerusalem were being targeted by acts of violence, prompted the pope to lend his support.
The pope offered any willing participant a remission of their sins by joining the cause, attracting large crusader armies under papal influence. The crusades began in 1099 as Roman Catholic soldiers commenced their march around the Mediterranean. The death toll was high for Christians and Muslims as the Crusader army captured cities on the way to Jerusalem. When Jerusalem was captured, Muslim and Jewish residents in the city were slaughtered, including women and children.
The crusader mentality was also unleashed upon other parts of the world, such as Northern Europe, which was still largely non-Christian, or pagan as the Christians referred to them. Christian armies comprised primarily of Christianized Germans preemptively invaded the non-Christians, forcing them to convert to Christianity under the threat of extermination.
The crusader mentality was that Christianity must displace competing ideologies, such as Islam, Judaism or paganism. It led to widespread acts of senseless violence, wars, and severe persecution against those from other faiths. For example, Jews throughout Europe were increasingly targeted during the crusader era, as anti-Semitism boiled over. The religious fervor engendered by the crusades sank religious tolerance to a low point, making Jewish communities throughout Europe an inviting target.
Violence directed at Jews became common, with entire Jewish communities slaughtered in the worst of cases. The crusader era rekindled a legacy of anti-Semite persecution in Europe, which would last until World War II, culminating with the Holocaust.
And yet, despite all this, the crusades ultimately weakened the Byzantine Empire instead of bolstering it. Byzantine was not as enthusiastic about campaigns into the Middle East, to the frustration of Roman Catholic soldiers, who felt their Eastern Orthodox counterparts undermined their efforts. This tension came to a head in 1204 when the Roman Catholic soldiers turned their hostility against their fellow Christians, capturing the Byzantine capital of Constantinople and surrounding territories.
The Greeks would eventually regain the heart of their empire by 1261 but would be irreversibly damaged. This left Byzantine ripe for destruction when the Ottoman Turks began advancing into Europe a century later. The Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire would be complete by 1453. With the Greek world under its control, the Islamic Ottomans would proceed to devour the rest of the Balkan peninsula, subjecting most of Southeast Europe for the next five centuries.
The crusading escapades would also be used as an indictment against the Roman Catholic Church centuries later during the Protestant Reformation, convincing many that the church was not the moral authority it had claimed to be throughout Roman times and the Dark Ages when it monopolized Christianity. The Protestant Reformation, which began in earnest in the early 16th century, would end the strict centralization that had characterized Christianity since the 5th century.
Slow, Gradual Erosion of Christianity's Influence
As the crusades were slowly winding down by the early 1300s, with the Christians having lost their final foothold in the Middle East in 1291, Europe was stricken by famine and pandemic disease as part of a cataclysm that would be forever known as Black Death. This marked the beginning of a gradual decline of Christianity’s grip on Europe.
When the Church proved powerless to stop the series of widespread plagues that devastated all of Europe, people began to question papal authority and even the validity of Christianity itself. More people would turn to critical analysis, which would play a part in the advent of the Renaissance that would begin by the 1400s. These philosophical revolutions would set Europe on the path toward becoming gradually less religious, a trend that accelerated after the world wars of the 20th century.
But the lasting impact has not faded. Although the methods are often far more subtle than they have been throughout the better part of the last five-and-a-half centuries, the hallmarks of European-based colonization are still omnipresent. European-based powers continue to dominate world affairs. This is especially true if we rightfully view the U.S., Canada and Australia as outgrowths of this legacy. And it all started with a secret order of feisty Greek peasants from nearly two thousand years ago who became captivated with the legend of a middle eastern, apocalyptic sermonizer who was martyred at the hands of Roman and Jewish authorities.
